529 plans

Since their creation in 1996, 529 plans have become to college savings what 401(k) plans are to retirement savings — an indispensable tool for saving money for a child’s or grandchild’s college education. That’s because 529 plans offer a unique combination of benefits.

There are two types of 529 plans — savings plans and prepaid tuition plans. Though each is governed under Section 529 of the Internal Revenue Code (hence the name “529” plans), savings plans and prepaid tuition plans are very different savings vehicles.

Note: Investors should consider the investment objectives, risks, charges, and expenses associated with 529 plans before investing; specific plan information is available in each issuer’s official statement. There is the risk that investments may not perform well enough to cover college costs as anticipated. Also, before investing, consider whether your state offers any favorable state tax benefits for 529 plan participation, and whether these benefits are contingent on joining the in-state 529 plan. Other state benefits may include financial aid, scholarship funds, and protection from creditors.

529 savings plans

The more popular type of 529 plan is the savings plan. A 529 savings plan is a tax-advantaged savings vehicle that lets you save money for college and K-12 tuition in an individual investment-type account, similar to a 401(k) plan. Some plans let you enroll directly, while others require you to go through a financial professional.

The details of 529 savings plans vary by state, but the basics are the same. You’ll need to fill out an application, name a beneficiary, and select one or more of the plan’s investment portfolios to which your contributions will be allocated. Also, you’ll typically be required to make an initial minimum contribution, which must be made in cash.

529 savings plans offer a unique combination of features that no other education savings vehicle can match:

Federal tax advantages: Contributions to a 529 account accumulate tax deferred and earnings are tax free if the money is used to pay the beneficiary’s qualified education expenses. (The earnings portion of any withdrawal not used for qualified education expenses is taxed at the recipient’s rate and subject to a 10% penalty.)

State tax advantages: Many states offer income tax incentives for state residents, such as a tax deduction for contributions or a tax exemption for qualified withdrawals. However, be aware that some states limit their tax deduction to contributions made to the in-state 529 plan only.

High contribution limits: Most plans have lifetime contribution limits of $350,000 and up (limits vary by state).

Unlimited participation: Anyone can open a 529 savings plan account, regardless of income level.

Wide use of funds: Money in a 529 savings plan can be used to pay the full cost (tuition, fees, room and board, books) at any college or graduate school in the United States or abroad that is accredited by the Department of Education, and for K-12 tuition expenses up to $10,000 per year.

Professional money management: 529 savings plans are offered by states, but they are managed by designated financial companies who are responsible for managing the plan’s underlying investment portfolios.

Flexibility: Under federal rules, you are entitled to change the beneficiary of your account to a qualified family member at any time as well as roll over (transfer) the money in your account to a different 529 plan once per calendar year without income tax or penalty implications.

Accelerated gifting: 529 savings plans offer an estate planning advantage in the form of accelerated gifting. This can be a favorable way for grandparents to contribute to their grandchildren’s education while paring down their own estate, or a way for parents to contribute a large lump sum. Under special rules unique to 529 plans, a lump-sum gift of up to five times the annual gift tax exclusion amount ($15,000 in 2018) is allowed in a single year, which means that individuals can make a lump-sum gift of up to $75,000 and married couples can gift up to $150,000. No gift tax will be owed, provided the gift is treated as having been made in equal installments over a five-year period and no other gifts are made to that beneficiary during the five years.

Transfer to ABLE account: 529 account owners can roll over (transfer) funds from a 529 account to an ABLE account without federal tax consequences. An ABLE account is a tax-advantaged account that can be used to save for disability-related expenses for individuals who become blind or disabled before age 26.

Variety: Currently, there are over 50 different savings plans to choose from because many states offer more than one plan. You can join any state’s savings plan.

But 529 savings plans have a couple of drawbacks:

No guaranteed rate of return: Investment returns aren’t guaranteed. You roll the dice with the investment portfolios you’ve chosen, and your account may gain or lose value depending on how the underlying investments perform. There is no guarantee that your investments will perform well enough to cover college costs as anticipated.

Investment flexibility: 529 savings plans have limited investment flexibility. Not only are you limited to the investment portfolios offered by the particular 529 plan, but once you choose your investments, you can only change the investment options on your existing contributions twice per calendar year. (However, you can generally direct how your future contributions will be invested at any time.)

529 prepaid tuition plans

Prepaid tuition plans are cousins to savings plans – their federal tax treatment is the same, but their operation is very different. A 529 prepaid tuition plan lets you prepay tuition at participating colleges, typically in-state public colleges, at today’s prices for use by the beneficiary in the future. Prepaid tuition plans are generally limited to state residents, whereas 529 savings plans are open to residents of any state. Prepaid tuition plans can be run either by states or colleges, though state-run plans are more common.

As with 529 savings plans, you’ll need to fill out an application and name a beneficiary. But instead of choosing an investment portfolio, you purchase an amount of tuition credits or units, subject to plan rules and limits. Typically, the tuition credits or units are guaranteed to be worth a certain amount of college tuition in the future, no matter how much college costs may increase between now and then.

However, if your child ends up attending a college that doesn’t participate in the plan, prepaid plans differ on how much money you’ll get back. Also, some prepaid plans have been forced to reduce benefits after enrollment due to investment returns that have not kept pace with the plan’s offered benefits.

Even with these limitations, some college investors appreciate not having to worry about college inflation each year and want to lock in college tuition prices today. The following table summarizes the main differences between 529 savings plans and 529 prepaid tuition plans:

Coverdell education savings accounts

A Coverdell education savings account (Coverdell ESA) is a tax-advantaged education savings vehicle that lets you save money for college, as well as for elementary and secondary school (K-12) at public, private, or religious schools. Here’s how it works:

• Application process: You fill out an application at a participating financial institution and name a beneficiary. Depending on the institution, there may be fees associated with opening and maintaining the account. The beneficiary must be under age 18 when the account is established (unless he or she is a child with special needs).
• Contribution rules: You (or someone else) make contributions to the account, subject to the maximum annual limit of $2,000. This means that the total amount contributed for a particular beneficiary in a given year can’t exceed $2,000, even if the money comes from different people. Contributions can be made up until April 15 of the year following the tax year for which the contribution is being made.
• Investing contributions: You invest your contributions as you wish (e.g., stocks, bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit)–you have sole control over your investments.
• Tax treatment: Contributions to your account grow tax deferred, which means you don’t pay income taxes on the account’s earnings (if any) each year. Money withdrawn to pay college or K-12 expenses (called a qualified withdrawal) is completely tax free at the federal level(and typically at the state level too). If the money isn’t used for college or K-12 expenses (called a nonqualified withdrawal), the earnings portion of the withdrawal will be taxed at the beneficiary’s tax rate and subject to a 10% federal penalty.
• Rollovers and termination of account: Funds in a Coverdell ESA can be rolled over without penalty into another Coverdell ESA for a qualifying family member. Also, any funds remaining in a Coverdell ESA must be distributed to the beneficiary when he or she reaches age 30 (unless the beneficiary is a person with special needs).

Unfortunately, not everyone can open a Coverdell ESA–your ability to contribute depends on your income. To make a full contribution, single filers must have a modified adjusted gross income (MAGI) of less than $95,000, and joint filers must have a MAGI of less than $190,000. And with an annual maximum contribution limit of $2,000, a Coverdell ESA can’t go it alone in meeting today’s college costs.

Custodial accounts

Before 529 plans and Coverdell ESAs, there were custodial accounts. A custodial account allows your child to hold assets–under the watchful eye of a designated custodian–that he or she ordinarily wouldn’t be allowed to hold in his or her own name. The assets can then be used to pay for college or anything else that benefits your child (e.g., summer camp, braces, hockey lessons, a computer). Here’s how a custodial account works:

• Application process: You fill out an application at a participating financial institution and name a beneficiary. Depending on the institution, there may be fees associated with opening and maintaining the account.
• Custodian: You also designate a custodian to manage and invest the account’s assets. The custodian can be you, a friend, a relative, or a financial institution. The assets in the account are controlled by the custodian.
• Assets: You (or someone else) contribute assets to the account. The type of assets you can contribute depends on whether your state has enacted the Uniform Transfers to Minors Act (UTMA) or the Uniform Gifts to Minors Act (UGMA). Examples of assets typically contributed are stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and real property.
• Tax treatment: Earnings, interest, and capital gains generated from assets in the account are taxed every year to the child under special “kiddie tax” rules that apply when a child has unearned income. The kiddie tax rules generally apply to children under age 18 and full-time college students under age 24 whose earned income doesn’t exceed one-half of their support. Under the kiddie tax rules, a child’s unearned income is taxed using the trust and estate tax rates.

A custodial account provides the opportunity for some tax savings, but the kiddie tax reduces the overall effectiveness of custodial accounts as a tax-advantaged college savings strategy. And there are other drawbacks. All gifts to a custodial account are irrevocable. Also, when your child reaches the age of majority (as defined by state law, typically 18 or 21), the account terminates and your child gains full control of all the assets in the account. Some children may not be able to handle this responsibility, or might decide not to spend the money for college.

U.S. savings bonds

Series EE and Series I bonds are types of savings bonds issued by the federal government that offer a special tax benefit for college savers. The bonds can be easily purchased from most neighborhood banks and savings institutions, or directly from the federal government. They are available in face values ranging from $50 to $10,000. You may purchase the bond in electronic form at face value or in paper form at half its face value.

If the bond is used to pay qualified education expenses and you meet income limits (as well as a few other minor requirements), the bond’s earnings are exempt from federal income tax. The bond’s earnings are always exempt from state and local tax.

In 2018, to be able to exclude all of the bond interest from federal income tax, married couples must have a modified adjusted gross income of $119,300 or less at the time the bonds are redeemed (cashed in), and individuals must have an income of $79,550 or less. A partial exemption of interest is allowed for people with incomes slightly above these levels.

The bonds are backed by the full faith and credit of the federal government, so they are a relatively safe investment. They offer a modest yield, and Series I bonds offer an added measure of protection against inflation by paying you both a fixed interest rate for the life of the bond (like a Series EE bond) and a variable interest rate that’s adjusted twice a year for inflation. However, there is a limit on the amount of bonds you can buy in one year, as well as a minimum waiting period before you can redeem the bonds, with a penalty for early redemption.

Roth IRAs

Though technically not a college savings account, some parents use Roth IRAs to save and pay for college. In 2018, you can contribute up to $5,500 per year. Earnings in a Roth IRA accumulate tax deferred. Contributions to a Roth IRA can be withdrawn at any time and are always tax free. For parents age 59½ and older, a withdrawal of earnings is also tax free if the account has been open for at least five years. For parents younger than 59½, a withdrawal of earnings–typically subject to income tax and a 10% premature distribution penalty–is spared the 10% penalty if the withdrawal is used to pay for a child’s college expenses.

But not everyone is eligible to contribute to a Roth IRA–it depends on your income. In 2018, if your filing status is single or head of household, you can contribute the full $5,500 to a Roth IRA if your MAGI is $120,000 or less. And if you’re married and filing a joint return, you can contribute the full $5,500 if your MAGI is $189,000 or less.

Financial aid impact

Your college saving decisions can impact the financial aid process. Come financial aid time, your family’s income and assets are run through a formula at both the federal level and the college (institutional) level to determine how much money your family should be expected to contribute to college costs before you receive any financial aid. This number is referred to as your expected family contribution, or EFC. Your income is by far the most important factor, but your assets count too.

In the federal calculation, your child’s assets are treated differently than your assets. Your child must contribute 20% of his or her assets each year, while you must contribute 5.6% of your assets. For example, $10,000 in your child’s bank account would equal an expected contribution of $2,000 from your child ($10,000 x 0.20), but the same $10,000 in your bank account would equal an expected $560 contribution from you ($10,000 x 0.056).

Under the federal rules, an UTMA/UGMA custodial account is classified as a student asset. By contrast, 529 plans and Coverdell ESAs are counted as parent assets if the parent is the account owner. In addition, student-owned or UTMA/UGMA-owned 529 accounts are also counted as parent assets. For 529 plans and Coverdell accounts that are counted as parent assets, distributions (withdrawals) from the account that are used to pay the beneficiary’s qualified education expenses are not counted as parent or student income on the federal government’s aid form, which means that the money is not counted again when it’s withdrawn.

However, the situation is different for grandparent-owned 529 plans and Coverdell accounts. If a 529 plan or Coverdell account is owned by a grandparent instead of a parent, the account isn’t counted as a parent asset–it doesn’t count as an asset at all. However, money withdrawn from a grandparent-owned account is counted as student income, and student income is assessed at 50% in the federal aid formula.

Other investments parents may own in their name, such as mutual funds, stocks, U.S. savings bonds, certificates of deposit, and real estate, are also classified as parent assets. However, the federal government doesn’t count retirement assets at all in its financial aid formula, so Roth IRAs aren’t factored in to aid eligibility.

Regarding institutional aid, colleges generally dig a bit deeper than the federal government in assessing a family’s assets and their ability to pay college costs. Most colleges use a standard financial aid application that considers assets the federal government might not, for example, home equity. Typically, though, colleges treat 529 plans, Coverdell accounts, UTMA/UGMA custodial accounts, U.S. savings bonds, and Roth IRAs the same as the federal government.

What is financial aid?

Financial aid is money distributed primarily by the federal government and colleges in the form of loans, grants, scholarships, or work-study jobs. A student can receive both federal and college aid. An ideal financial aid package will contain more grants and scholarships (which don’t need to be repaid) and fewer loans.

Financial aid can be further broken down into two categories: need-based aid, which is based on a student’s financial need, and merit aid, which is based on a student’s academic, athletic, musical, or artistic talent. Both the federal government and colleges provide need-based aid in the form of loans and grants. For merit aid, colleges are the main source, and they often use favorable merit aid packages to attract the best and brightest students to their campuses.

It’s worth noting that colleges can vary significantly in their generosity when it comes to merit aid; merit awards are typically related to the size of a college’s endowment and its unique objectives. College guidebooks and marketing materials generally provide statistics on the size of a college’s average aid award (both in dollar amounts and as a percentage of the typical aid package) and the family income thresholds necessary for different aid amounts. If you’re a family researching college choices, you can help your bottom line by targeting colleges that offer significant merit aid packages. For example, some colleges have made it a policy to replace loans with grants in their financial aid packages.

In addition to colleges, many businesses, foundations, and associations offer smaller merit scholarships with specific eligibility criteria and deadlines. Various scholarship websites allow your child to input his or her background, abilities, and interests and receive (free of charge) a matching list of potential scholarships.

How is my child’s financial need determined?

Financial need is generally determined by looking at a family’s income, assets, and household information. The federal government uses the FAFSA, which stands for Free Application for Federal Student Aid; colleges generally use the PROFILE form, or their own institutional form. The FAFSA uses a formula known as the federal methodology; the PROFILE uses a formula known as the institutional methodology. The general process of aid assessment is called needs analysis.

Under the FAFSA, your current income and assets and your child’s current income and assets are run through a formula. You are allowed certain deductions and allowances against your income, and you’re able to exclude certain assets from consideration. The result is a figure known as the expected family contribution, or EFC. It’s the amount of money that you’ll be expected to contribute to college costs before you are eligible for aid.

A detailed analysis of the formula is beyond the scope of this article, but generally here’s how it works: (1) parent income is counted up to 47% (income equals adjusted gross income or AGI plus untaxed income/benefits minus certain deductions); (2) student income is counted at 50% over a certain amount ($6,400 for the 2016/2017 school year); (3) parent assets are counted at 5.6% (home equity, retirement assets, cash value life insurance, and annuities are excluded); and (4) student assets are counted at 20%.

Your EFC remains constant, no matter which college your child applies to. An important point: Your EFC is not the same as your child’s financial need. To calculate your child’s financial need, subtract your EFC from the cost of attendance at your child’s college. Because colleges aren’t all the same price, your child’s financial need will fluctuate with the cost of a particular college.

For example, you fill out the FAFSA, and your EFC is calculated to be $25,000. Assuming that the cost of attendance at College A is $65,000 per year and the cost at College B is $35,000, your child’s financial need is $40,000 at College A and $10,000 at College B.

The PROFILE application basically works the same way. However, the PROFILE generally takes a more thorough look at your income and assets to determine what you can really afford to pay (for example, the PROFILE looks at your home equity and money you may have contributed to medical and dependent care flexible spending accounts).

What factors count the most in needs analysis? Your current income is the most important factor, but other criteria play a role, such as your total assets, the number of children you’ll have in college at the same time, and how close you are to retirement age.

Estimating aid eligibility ahead of time

Getting a ballpark estimate of financial aid ahead of time can be very helpful for planning purposes. There are two ways you can do this.

First, the federal government offers an online tool called the “FAFSA4caster” that you can complete to get an estimate of your EFC. Second, every college offers a tool called a “net price calculator” on its website that you can complete to get an estimate of how much financial aid your child might be eligible for at that particular college based on your family’s financial and personal profile.

Submitting financial aid applications

The best way to complete the FAFSA is to fill it out and submit it online (it can also be completed manually and mailed to the address listed on the form). The online route is more efficient because mistakes are flagged immediately and electronic FAFSAs take only one week to process (compared to two to four weeks for paper FAFSAs). In order to complete the FAFSA online, you and your child will first need to obtain an FSA ID, which you can also do online.

Starting with the 2017/2018 school year, families are able to file the FAFSA as early as October 1, 2016, using their 2015 tax return. Going forward, the FAFSA will rely on tax information from two years prior. The FAFSA has the ability to directly import your tax information using the IRS Retrieval Tool, which is built into the form. However, you will also have to answer additional questions.

The PROFILE (or individual college application) is usually submitted in late fall or winter but is typically required earlier if your child is applying to college early decision or early action. The specific deadline is left up to the individual college, so make sure to keep track of all college deadlines. In addition to the form itself, the CSS Profile will typically require you to submit tax returns, and possibly other financial documents, at a later date. If so, you’ll receive instructions on how to do this.

After your FAFSA is processed, your child will receive a Student Aid Report highlighting your EFC; the colleges that you list on the FAFSA will also get a copy of the report. When your child is accepted at a college, the college’s financial aid administrator will attempt to craft an aid package to help meet your child’s financial need. This is done using a combination of the following (typically in this order):

• Federal Pell Grant (for students with exceptional financial need)
• Federal Direct Stafford Loan (subsidized for students with financial need)
• Federal Direct Stafford Loan (unsubsidized for all other students)
• Federal Perkins Loan, Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant (SEOG), and work-study (funds for these programs are allocated to colleges by the federal government for distribution to students; whether a student receives any of these funds depends on timing of application, financial need, and availability of funds)
• College grant, scholarship, or tuition discount (at the college’s discretion)

Keep in mind that colleges aren’t obligated to meet all of your child’s financial need. In fact, it’s not uncommon for colleges to meet only a portion of a student’s need, a phenomenon known as getting “gapped.” If this happens to you, you’ll have to make up the shortfall, in addition to paying your EFC. On the flip side, if a college says it is meeting “100% of your demonstrated need” keep in mind that the college is the one who determines your need, not you, and that you’ll still have to pay your EFC.

Comparing aid awards

In late winter or early spring, your child will receive financial aid award letters that detail the specific amount and type of financial aid that each college is offering. When comparing aid awards, read each award letter carefully and make sure you understand exactly what the college is offering. The goal is to compare your out-of-pocket cost at each college. To do this, look at the total cost of attendance for each college and subtract any grant or scholarship aid the college is offering. If the grant or scholarship is merit-based, find out if it’s guaranteed for each year your child is in college and what requirements must be met in order to qualify for it annually. If the grant or scholarship is need-based, find out whether you can expect a similar amount each year as long as your income and assets stay roughly the same (and you have the same number of children in college), and ask the aid office whether it increases to keep up with annual increases in tuition, fees, and room and board.

The difference between the total cost and any grant or scholarship aid is your out-of-pocket cost or “net price.” Compare this figure across all colleges. Once you determine your out-of-pocket cost at each college, determine how much, if anything, you or your child will need to borrow. Then multiply this figure by four to get an idea of what your total borrowing costs might be. Armed with this information, you’ll be in a position to make the best financial decision for your family.

If you’d like to lobby a particular school for more aid, tread carefully. A polite letter to the financial aid administrator followed up by a telephone call is appropriate. Your chances of getting more aid are best if you can document a change in circumstances that affects your ability to pay, such as a recent job loss, unusually high medical bills, or some other event that impacts your finances. Your chances of getting more aid by asking one college if they’ll match a favorable aid offer from another college is a less reliable strategy, but may be worth a shot if the colleges are direct competitors.

How much should our family rely on financial aid?

With all this talk of financial aid, it’s easy to assume that it will do most of the heavy lifting when it comes time to pay the college bills. But the reality is you shouldn’t rely too heavily on financial aid. Although aid can certainly help cover your child’s college costs, student loans often make up the largest percentage of the typical aid package, not grants and scholarships. Remember, parents and students who rely mainly on loans to finance college can end up with a considerable debt burden that can have negative financial implications for years after graduation.